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THE SCIENTISTS LAWS IN PHYSICS
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Newtons laws of motions
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- First law: When viewed in an inertial reference frame, an object either is at rest or moves at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.
- Second law: The sum of the forces on an object is equal to the total mass of that object multiplied by the acceleration of the object. In more technical terms, the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to, and in the same direction as, the net force acting on the body, and inversely proportional to its mass. Thus, F = ma, where F is the net force acting on the object, mis the mass of the object and a is the acceleration of the object. Force and acceleration are both vectors (as denoted by the bold type). This means that they have both a magnitude (size) and a direction relative to some reference frame.
- Third law: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the first body.
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Keplers Laws
The orbit of every
planet is an
ellipse with the Sun at one of the two
foci.
A
line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal
areas during equal intervals of time.
[1]
The
square of the
orbital period of a planet is
proportional to the
cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit.
Newton Law of Gravitation
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a
force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
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Stokes Law
In 1851,
George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression, now known as Stokes' law, for the frictional force – also called
drag force – exerted on
spherical objects with very small
Reynolds numbers (e.g., very small particles) in a continuous
viscous fluid. Stokes' law is derived by solving the
Stokes flow limit for small Reynolds numbers of the
Navier–Stokes equations:
[1]
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where Fd is the frictional force – known as Stokes' drag – acting on the interface between the fluid and the particle (in
N),μ is the
dynamic viscosity (N s/m2),R is the radius of the spherical object (in m), and v is the particle's velocity (in m/s).
Stokes' law makes the following assumptions for the behavior of a particle in a fluid:
Laminar Flow
Spherical particles
Homogeneous (uniform in composition) material
Smooth surfaces
Particles do not interfere with each other.
Note that for
molecules Stokes' law is used to define their
Stokes radius.
Hooks Law
Hooke's law is a principle of
physics that states that the
force 
needed to extend or compress a
spring by some distance
is proportional to that distance. That is,
where
is a constant factor characteristic of the spring, its
stiffness.
Ohms Law
Ohm's law states that the
current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the
potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the
resistance,
[1] one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:
[2]
Joules Laws
Joule's laws are two laws about
heat produced by an
electric current and the
energy dependence of a
gas to
pressure,
volume and
temperature.
Joule's first law shows the relation between
heat generated by an electric current flowing through a
conductor. It is named after
James Prescott Joule and shown as:
Where Q is the amount of heat, I is the electric current flowing through a conductor, R is the amount of electric resistance present in the conductor, and t is the amount of time that this happens for.
Joule's second law says that the
internal energy of a
gas does not change if volume and pressure change, but does change if temperature changes.
Law of Biot & Savart
In
physics, particularly
electromagnetism, the Biot–Savart law (
/ˈbiːoʊ səˈvɑr/ or
/ˈbjoʊ səˈvɑr/)
[1] is an equation describing the
magnetic field generated by an
electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The law is valid in the
magnetostatic approximation, and is consistent with both
Ampère's circuital law and
Gauss's law for magnetism.
Faraday's Laws
Several versions of the laws can be found in textbooks and the scientific literature. The most common statements resemble the following:
Faraday's 1st Law of Electrolysis - The mass of a substance altered at an
electrode during
electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode. Quantity of electricity refers to the quantity of
electrical charge, typically measured in
coulomb.
Faraday's 2nd Law of Electrolysis - For a given quantity of D.C electricity (electric charge), the mass of an
elemental material altered at an electrode is directly proportional to the element's
equivalent weight. The equivalent weight of a substance will be explained in the next paragraph.
Electromagnetic induction is the production of a
potential difference (voltage) across a
conductor when it is exposed to a varying
magnetic field.
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Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831 though it may have been anticipated by the work of
Francesco Zantedeschi in 1829.
[1] Around 1830
[2] to 1832,
[3] Joseph Henry made a similar discovery, but did not publish his findings until later.
It is also known (above all in Italy) as Faraday and Neumann's law of induction, due to the works of
Franz Ernst Neumann.
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a
magnetic field will interact with an
electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force (EMF). It is the fundamental operating principle of
transformers,
inductors, and many types of
electrical motors,
generators and
solenoids.
[4][5]
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- The Maxwell–Faraday equation is a generalisation of Faraday's law, and forms one of Maxwell's equations
Lens Law
Lenz's law
/ˈlɛntsɨz lɔː/ is a common way of understanding how
electromagnetic circuits obey
Newton's third law and the
conservation of energy.
[1] Lenz's law is named after
Heinrich Lenz, and it says:
An induced
electromotive force (emf) always gives rise to a current whose magnetic field opposes the original change in
magnetic flux.
Lenz's law is shown with the negative sign in
Faraday's law of induction:
,
which indicates that the induced emf (ℰ) and the change in magnetic flux (∂ΦB) have opposite signs.
[2]
For a rigorous mathematical treatment, see
electromagnetic induction and
Maxwell's equations
Snells Law
- Snell's law (also known as the Snell–Descartes law and the law of refraction) is a formula used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary between two different isotropic media, such as water, glass and air.
- Michelson Rotating Prison Methods for the splitting of light
- Lloyds Mirror
Brewsters Law
- Brewster's angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectricsurface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized. This special angle of incidence is named after the Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster
- Doper Effect
Newton law of Cooling
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Boyles Law
Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law
[1]) is an experimental
gas law which describes how the
pressure of a
gas tends to decrease as the
volume of a gas increases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is:
The absolute
pressure exerted by a given mass of an
ideal gas is inversely proportional to the
volume it occupies if the
temperature and
amount of gas remain unchanged within a
closed system.
[2][3]
Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as
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or
where P is the
pressure of the gas, V is the
volume of the gas, and k is a
constant.
The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as
The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas decreases in proportion. Similarly, as volume decreases, the pressure of the gas increases. The law was named after
chemist and
physicist Robert Boyle, who published the original law in 1662
Charles Law
Charles' law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental
gas law which describes how
gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles' law is:
The
volume of a given mass of an
ideal gas is
directly proportional to its temperature on the
absolute temperature scale (in Kelvin) if
pressure and the
amount of gas remain constant; that is, the volume of the gas increases or decreases by the same factor as its temperature.
[1]
this
directly proportional relationship can be written as:
or
where:V is the
volume of the gasT is the
temperature of the gas (measured in
Kelvin).k is a
constant.
This law explains how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:
The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. The law was named after scientist
Jacques Charles, who formulated the original law in his unpublished work from the 1780s.
Avogadros Law
Avogadro's law (sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis or Avogadro's principle) is an experimental
gas law relating
volume of a gas to the
amount of substance of gas present. A modern statement of Avogadro's law is:
Avogadro's law states that, "equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules".
For a given mass of an
ideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are directly proportional if the
temperature and
pressure are constant.
which can be written as:
or
where:V is the
volume of the gasn is the
amount of substance of the gas (measured in
moles).k is a
constant equal to RT/P, where R is the universal gas constant, T is the Kelvin temperature, and P is the pressure. As temperature and pressure are constant, RT/P is also constant and represented as k. This is derived from the
ideal gas law.
This law explains how, under the same condition of
temperature and
pressure, equal
volumes of all
gases contain the same number of
molecules. For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as follows:
The equation shows that, as the number of moles of gas increases, the volume of the gas also increases in proportion. Similarly, if the number of moles of gas is decreased, then the volume also decreases. Thus, the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of ideal
gas is independent of their size or the
molar mass of the gas.
The law is named after
Amedeo Avogadro who, in 1811,
[1] hypothesized that two given samples of an ideal gas, of the same volume and at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. As an example, equal volumes of molecular
hydrogen and
nitrogen contain the same number of molecules when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe
ideal gas behavior. In practice, real gases show small deviations from the ideal behavior and the law holds only approximately, but is still a useful approximation for scientists.
Dolton Law
In
chemistry and
physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that the total
pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of individual gases. This
empirical law was observed by
John Dalton in 1801 and is related to the
ideal gas laws.
Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be defined as the summation
or
where
represent the partial pressure of each component.
It is assumed that the gases do not
react with each other
where
is the
mole fraction of the i-th component in the total mixture of n components .
The relationship below provides a way to determine the
volume based concentration of any individual gaseous component
where
is the concentration of the i-th component expressed in
ppm.
Dalton's law is not exactly followed by real gases. Those deviations are considerably large at high pressures. In such conditions, the volume occupied by the molecules can become significant compared to the free space between them. In particular, the short average distances between molecules raises the intensity of
intermolecular forces between gas molecules enough to substantially change the pressure exerted by them. Neither of those effects are considered by the ideal gas model.
Graham's Law
Graham's law, known as Graham's law of
effusion, was formulated by Scottish physical chemist
Thomas Graham in 1848. Graham found experimentally that the rate of
effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles.
[1] This formula can be written as:
where:Rate1 is the rate of effusion of the first gas (volume or number of moles per unit time).Rate2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas.M1 is the
molar mass of gas 1M2 is the molar mass of gas 2.Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Thus, if the molecular weight of one gas is four times that of another, it would diffuse through a porous plug or escape through a small pinhole in a vessel at half the rate of the other (heavier gases diffuse more slowly). A complete theoretical explanation of Graham's law was provided years later by the
kinetic theory of gases. Graham's law provides a basis for separating
isotopes by diffusion — a method that came to play a crucial role in the development of the atomic bomb.
Stefano Law
Drevosts Theory
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Kirchhaffs Law
This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule).
The principle of conservation of
electric charge implies that:At any node (junction) in an
electrical circuit, the sum of
currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or:The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or away from a node, this principle can be stated as:
n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.
This formula is valid for
complex currents:
The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds).
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Maxwell Equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of
partial differential equations that, together with the
Lorentz force law, form the foundation of
classical electrodynamics, classical
optics, and
electric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and communications technologies. Maxwell's equations describe how
electric and
magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by
charges and
currents. They are named after the Scottish physicist and mathematician
James Clerk Maxwell who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862
Andrews Experiments
